Game-based learning approaches, such as gamified learning designs and digital learning games, have shown promise in motivating students and improving attitudes towards subject matter (Weitze, 2016; Liu et al., 2013). The integration of play principles with experiential learning frameworks can foster intellectual, physical, spiritual, and moral development (Kolb & Kolb, 2010).

For didactic purposes, we will go through several models of organizing learning activities, built to support the design of digital educational games (Quinn, 2005), which can be used to understand how we can transform an educational activity into an attractive moment, similar to play activities. We present a selection of three models – mini-scenarios, chained scenarios, conditional scenarios – ranked progressively according to their ability to increase the engagement and attractiveness of learning activities.

In practice, when we plan didactic activities in the classroom ("conventional") or when we create a learning path in a virtual educational platform, we can combine these approaches, depending on the objectives we set, the complexity of the topic, the time and the resources available, how the students in the class work and respond to such 'challenges'.

What the sequence of models below suggests is to note that, supported by the infusion of new technologies, educational situations are transforming (or should be transformed) from conventional, teacher-centric, linear situations into student-centred and learning-centred situations, constructivist, personalized and adaptive.

The mini-scenario is a simple activity model, also frequently used in traditional training, suitable for a deductive teaching strategy.

We have an introduction (or attention-grabbing moment, which can be, for example, an image, a short film or a cartoon sequence), the presentation of the concept (representing the problem, key information or situation in didactic terms), the example (perhaps a story or an application-type scenario), based on which we create contexts for decision-making - practice. It concludes with a moment of fixation on the key elements learned.

The mini-scenario (apud Quinn, 2005, p. 77)

Alternatively, the model of the nine events of instruction, developed by Gagné, can be used.

The linked (chained) scenarios establish a suite of decisions corresponding to key moments of learning content (which may consist of information, skills, attitudes), assembled as possible paths subsumed under the same theme.

Each problem-situation that requires a decision on the part of the learner has information (explanatory), on the basis of which the option can be made, and an example (applicative).

The linked scenario (Quinn, 2005, p. 87)

It can be seen that the model is linear, thus being suitable for certain topics where learning proceeds from close to close, for each level (problem/scenario) the previously acquired information and capabilities are required. Also notice that, unlike the first model, this one allows for an inductive didactic approach.

Contingent (or branching) scenarios allow exploring the consequences of decisions – the path is no longer linear, but can branch endlessly. Students can make mistakes (intentionally or not), retake the course as many times as they want, and learn from the alternatives they choose.

The branched/ contingent scenario (Quinn, 2005, p. 95)

The learning experience is all the more meaningful, enjoyable and realistic the more decision moments and alternative paths are available to the learner.

For better management of the paths - which can branch endlessly, sometimes, to capture all possible situations - the teacher can divide the scenario into linearly assembled sequences (chained activity), projecting, on each sequence, multiple alternatives (conditional activities).

In all the above cases, in order to make learning attractive, participatory, motivating, the introduction can consist of presenting an imaginary situation in which the student will be the main character, having to make decisions and find answers to the presented problems. The activity thus takes a playful form.

 

Recent research explores models for ludic learning design, emphasizing the creation of playful learning spaces that promote deep, engaging educational experiences. They build upon pedagogical principles related to the role and effects of simulations, video games, didactic games, and gamification of educational situations.

Ludic engagement designs can support flexible, open-ended learning environments that accommodate diverse learners and emergent interactions; in his study, E. Brooks (2013) presents a basic model for designing interactive spaces for playful learning, centred on the conditions for play activities, which has broader applicability in education settings. In a ”situated activity”, we have the ”goal of action” equidistantly positioned between the learner, the outside agent (teacher/ designer of the situation) and the technology setting. The interactive environment specific attributes are:

• Non-invasiveness
• Open-endedness
• Gestural affordances
• Volumetric space
• Creative actions
• Symmetry and asymmetry
• Intuitiveness
• Ease of use
• Immediate feedback

Upon Brooks, from the learning outcomes pedagogical perspective, the learning experiences should consider and enable several key-aspects: self-achievement, exploration, play, interest, curiosity, engagement, mastery, competence growth, and ”aesthetic resonance” (that refers to a compatibility between the subject and what is proposed, supporting interactions such as instrumental exploration and surprise exploration).

The Smiley Model and other frameworks provide scaffolds for designing engaging learning experiences in games. In an investigation in 2016, Weitze reported that student game designers successfully integrated learning scenarios into digital games, fostering deeper levels of understanding. As a result, students encountered motivating learning experiences and enhanced social and collaborative learning processes within the classroom (Weitze, 2016).

Parameters in a motivational and engaging game for learning
(apud Weitze, 2016)

Lately, surpassing ”classical” approaches such as ADDIE – analyse, design, develop, implement, evaluate – there have been imagined new ways of designing learning paths. Combining elements from instructional design and commercial game development, iterative design methodologies offer novel approaches to serious game development. Instead of relying on a predefined learning outcome and a pre-set instructional methodology to achieve it, following the game design model, the iterative didactic design starts from a playable prototype that can be tested immediately (playtest) and then the result can influence any part of the game, leading to a gamified learning path that can deviate substantially from the original game concept.

Iterative design model
(Wagner & Wernbacher, 2020, p. 3, https://osf.io/preprints/osf/jgd64)

In any case, according to Wagner & Wernbacher (2020), in order to get an efficient learning situation, learner’s autonomy should supported, the learning progress should be mapped by (knowledge/ skills) points, the activities should be authentic/ realistic, the learning goals should be as closely connected to the game objectives as possible.

The same authors come with some interesting additional observations:

• Teachers play an essential role in the effectiveness of digital game-based education, as they manage the learning process and ensure all students achieve the desired learning outcomes.
• Teachers do not need to be gamers themselves to effectively use digital games in the classroom.
• Students who regularly play digital games in their free time tend to benefit more from digital game-based education compared to those who do not have much experience with games (Wagner & Wernbacher, 2020).

Learning should be an enjoyable and rewarding experience for students, fostering their curiosity, playfulness, and active participation with peers and teachers. To create such engaging learning activities, teachers require availability, openness, student knowledge, pedagogical tools, creativity, and significant effort.

In today's digital age, a wealth of instructional resources is readily available online, offering a diverse array of activity ideas, learning platforms, and information in various formats (text, image, audio, video) across disciplines and educational levels. Research has demonstrated the benefits of utilizing digital resources in enhancing student motivation, attention, understanding, and the relevance of learning content (Istrate, 2010).

However, it is crucial to recognize the value of traditional activities for specific learning outcomes and content units. While digital resources offer numerous advantages, a balanced approach that incorporates both conventional and innovative methods is essential for effective teaching and learning.

Creating effective educational experiences is a challenging task, no matter if they incorporate digital technologies or not. Designing high-quality educational situations requires an even greater effort that merges elements of traditional pedagogy with those that promote active participation, often through play, to engage all students (or each individual student). An explanatory model for the various instructional design elements emphasizes the connection between the "learning" and "fun" aspects (Quinn, 2005), thereby providing a valuable framework for developing participatory educational activities in a playful manner.

Aspects of participatory and engaging instructional design (Adapted from: Quinn, 2005, pp. 54-63)

Learning conditions	Conditions for attractive and engaging activity	Synergy, implications, explanations
Contextualisation	Thematic coherence	1. Theme: Participatory activity must have a context, a theme, a "story" – it is possible to use characters and situations known to all students, eg Wild West, dinosaur age, NASA, trip on the Moon, group expedition, celebrities in music, politics, science etc. Even the feedback needs to be grafted on the chosen topic, as a dialogue, appreciation or advice in that context.
Precise objectives	Precise purpose	2. Purpose: The goal must be clear and made known from the beginning, so that the student can make informed choices throughout the course. It is the motivation for action and gives the measure of progress. Ideally, the goal should be naturally integrated into the context/ theme of the activity.
Adequate challenge	Ballanced challenge	3. Challenge: An engaging experience must have a proper challenge against student's age or interest horizon, appropriate to the level of knowledge in the field – it must suit his/ her zone of proximal development. It should also result in a succession of balanced and weighted tasks as level of difficulty (from simple, beginner levels, to complex, advanced levels) to adequately accompany student's progress.
Anchored in the study subject	Relevance of action for the domain	4. Link between action and subject-matter content: Situations of the activity scenarios should require application of knowledge and exercise of the capacities targeted by the learning objectives.
Relevance	Relevance of the problem for the learner	5. Connection between the proposed problem/ situation and the learner: Another criterion for the choice of the theme is the connection with the interests of the student (or of the class group) – he/ she can react better to certain emotional and motivational factors, to certain cognitive approaches, to competitive or collaborative tasks etc. In addition, if you know his/her problem-solving style, what preconceived prejudices or ideas he/she has, you can better design your activity’ tasks, or you can detect along the way the source of potential mistakes.
Open/ free characteristic. Possibilities for exploring further	Choices of the course of the action	6. Activism: An effective learning activity offers possibilities of (cognitive) interaction with the content of learning and of construction of own understanding based on this interaction. The student must be active in making decisions, and the scenario must contain enough ramifications to keep him engaged in activity.
Active handling	Direct handing	7. Direct interaction: It is preferable that the student is able to act (physically) on the representations of learning contents. In a conventional situation, for example, it is better to provide cards with descriptions of options than to be presented orally. Clicking, scrolling a list, pressing a key, turning an explanation card, starting a simulation and stopping it when needed – these are as well elements of the unmediated interaction.
Appropriate feedback	Association	8. Feedback: Any decision has a consequence with a certain significance for the learning path. The consequences of the choices must be presented, preferably embedded in the play/ activity scenario, on that choice branch, until a new decision is being made, so that the student builds his/ her own understanding on the undertaken sequence. "The story" takes priority – the student does not have to be "pulled out" from the scenario, because the activity would lose its immersive, engaging attribute – a character (verbal feedback) or a situation in the same thematic context has to provide feedback. In complex scenarios, feedback can occur later, after the student has made other related decisions that converge to a consequence.
Gaining attention	New information and events	9. Affect: Each sequence of the scenario must be unpredictable to the greatest extent possible. From time to time, the choices can be made ”by chance” by the learner, the information available for decisions not being complete or sufficiently structured – therefore the learning path becomes more interesting, dramatic, de-stressed and at the same time providing chances to all students to achieve the didactic goal at the same time. In addition, especially with respect to digital materials, special attention is needed to visual and auditory elements of context: colours used, fonts, addressing mode, sound effects must not be distractors, but must be in tune with the chosen theme and scenario, to strengthen the message and to contribute to the feeling of realism.

 

These ludic learning designs blur the boundaries between learning and play, reflecting new communicative conditions and learner roles (S. Selander, 2008). It is true that the new technologies provide the opportunity to create a participatory and engaging learning experience by developing and utilizing various interactive resources within a learning environment. The models presented offers valuable insights into the essential elements of effectively designing a learning pathway supported by the digital media. Equally important, it indicates what an online or hybrid learning scenario should avoid. Many constraints and conditions that apply to "conventional" face-to-face teaching and learning activities are enhanced in the realm of computer-assisted education.